Causes of the French Revolution

One of the major causes of the French Revolution was the despotism by the Bourbon king. The bourbon despotism reached its height in the reign of Louis XIV. The life of every person in the realm was at the arbitrary disposal of the king. Persons were thrown into prison without even knowing the offense for which they were arrested. The royal decrees were laws. The taxes imposed by the king were simply robberies and confiscations. In France there were three classes of Estates of the people.The clergy,the nobles and the commons.The clergy and nobles owned most of the land and they had special privileges.The bulk of the common were peasants.The noble families also monopolized the higher offices of church and army.The peasants paid rent to the land lords,church levied tithes and the king collected high amount of taxes. Besided, they were subjected to the 'CORVEE', that is  the compulsory service on kings roads,bridge tolls and obligation  to grind corn in the mill of the land lord and bake bread in his oven.these socioeconomic discrimination's are another major cause of the french revolution.But the peasants were not the actual originators of the revolution.The rise of the middle class was really responsible for the revolution.The financial condition of the french government also contributed to the revolution.
The government had become bankrupt,owing the ruinous wars into which France had plunged in the 18th century and the orgy extravagance in which all the monarchs and their courtiers had indulged.The loss of the french colonies also leads to the financial crisis.The political philosophers like Rousseau,Montesquieu and voltaire leads the intellectual revolution and that contributed to the french revolution.The examples of glorious revolution of 1688 and American revolution gave inspiration to the leaders of the french revolution.The immediate cause of the french revolution was the summoning of the State general in 1789 by the king on account of financial stringency a hundred and seventy five years after its last meeting. This was the signal for the revolution.

The french Revolution

The french Revolution  (1789-1799) was the revolt of the French people against royal despotism and class privilege. "Liberty, Equality,Fraternity" was the motto of the Revolution.The French society was divided into three orders, or Estates, which were legally defined groupings. The clergy constituted the First Estate, the nobility the Second Estate, and everyone else the Third Estate. The clergy and nobility, enjoyed special privileges, receiving pensions and profitable positions from the king. The social structure of the Old Regime, based on privileges and inequalities sanctioned by law, which leads to the discrimination in the society and that  leads to the Revolution.

The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789.The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.The ideas of 'la patrie' (the fatherland) and 'le citoyen' (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation. A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation

Features of the First Industrial Revolution

The essential features of the first industrial revolution was the invention of machinery.The inventions took place primarily in two groups of industries - the textile industries and the metal industries.Among textile industries the cotton industry was the first to be machanised by the invention of 'the flying shuttle' by John Kay in 1733, which enabled the weaving of cloth by one man instead of two.So the output of the weavers doubled and was created an increased  demand for the production of yarn.In 1767 James Hargreaves  invented  'Spinning Jenny'  was a compound spinning wheel capable of producing sixteen threads at once.But the yarn produced by jenny was not sufficiently strong.In 1769Richard Arkwright invented 'Water-Frame' which produced strong yarn.In 1779 Samuel Crompton invented 'mule' which combined the features of  both Jenyy and Water-Frame.Later Reverend Edmund Cartwright invented 'the power loom' a weaving machine worked by mechanical power, instead of by hand.this enabled large quantities of cloth to be made in factories which need very few human resources.
The use of machines depended on the application of sufficient power.At first water power was employed.Then steam engine invented.In 1712 Thomas Newcomen devised a crude engine for British coal mines.Later  in 1769 James watt invented a steam engine without the defects of the crude engine.In 1784 Henry Cort devised a method of stirring the molten iron to eliminate a larger percentage of its carbon content.It enabled the production of the tougher grade of metal known as the wrought iron in large quantitiesTwo years later Cort invented the rolling mill for the manufacture of sheet iron.Thus these invention leads to the era of steel.Another impotant feature of the industrial revolution was the rise of factory system.The new machines were bulky and expensive and could not be installed in houses and that leads to the esatblishment of factories , employing large number of workers and managed by capitalist.Another feature was the revolution in  transport and communication.in the year 1825 another revolution in transport and communication started, when the railway steamship and telegraph were introduced.George Stephenson who is known as the father of locomotive , improved the locomotives.The first commercially successfull type of steamboat was produced by an American named Robert Fulton in 1807.In 1820 The french physicist Ampere discovered the electromagnetism for sending messages by wire between distant points.In 1837 system of electric telegraphy were invented almost simultaneously by three scientist by the German Karl Steinheil,by the Englishman Charles Wheatstone, and by the American Samuel Morse.It marked the beginning of new epoch in the development of the means of communication.

IndustrialRevolution

The industrial revolution is an economic revolution which began in England in the second half of the 18th century.It bought fundamental changes in the industriL Fields and  effected far reaching changes in methods and orginisation of industrial production.Industrial revolution marked a  change from handwork to machine work and a change from work at home to work at factories.It also made revolutionary change in transportation and communication.
It is not a sudden and spectacular change like political revolution but a process of evolution involving slow and gradual change.Industrial revolution bought a fundamental change in the way of working,travel and communication.The historians divide the industrial revolution into two stages. Some of the historians states that The first phase of industrial revolution happened from 1770 to 1830 and some others states that it happened from 1760 to 1860.The second phase also have the same conflict.Some historians states that it starts from 1830 to 1870 when it spread to other countries in Europe and to the new world. But some states that it happened from 1860 to the present day.However, it is an undisputed fact that the industrial revolution began in england in the latter half of the 18th century and reached its climax there by the close of the third decade in the 19th century. Commercial revolution and mercantilism are the main causes of  the industrial revolution.During the age of commercial revolution the capitalist class was in search of new opportunities to invest their surplus wealth.The mercantilist policy was designed to increase the quantity of manufactured  goods available for export and there by to realize a favorable balance of trade.Thus in a sense industrial revolution was the child of commercial  revolution which preceded it.

Revolution

Revolution means change in the existing power or organizational structures to a new one.Revolution originates from the Latin word 'revolutio', which means "a turn around". Revolution in a political sense, fundamental and violent change in the values, political institutions,social structure, leadership, and policies of a society.Examples include the French, Russian, Chinese,Cuban, and Iranian revolutions.The term revolution is also used to denote trends which have resulted in great social changes outside the political sphere, such as changes in morels, culture, philosophy or technology. Many have been global, while others have been limited to single countries. According to  Aristotle, economic inequality has been recognized as an important cause of revolution. Contemporary thinking about revolution is dominated by Marxist ideas - revolution is the means for removing reactionary classes from power and transferring power to progressive ones.
Such revolutions like,
The Neolithic Revolution (perhaps 13000 years ago), which formed the basis for human civilization to develop. It is commonly referred to as the 'First Agricultural Revolution'.
The Green Revolution - started in 1945 The use of industrial fertilizers and new crops greatly increased the world's agricultural output. It is commonly referred to as the 'Second Agricultural Revolution'.
The British Agricultural Revolution (18th century) - which spurred urbanization and consequently helped launch the Industrial Revolution.
The Scottish Agricultural Revolution (18th century), which led to the Lowland Clearances.
The Commercial Revolution-A period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism which lasted from approximately the sixteenth century until the early eighteenth century.
The Counterculture of the 1960s(approximately 1960–1973) was a social revolution that originated in the United States and United Kingdom, and eventually spread to other western nations. The themes of this movement included the anti-war movement,rebellion against conservative norms and drug use.
The Industrial Revolution- The major shift of technological, socioeconomic and cultural conditions in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that began in Britain and spread throughout the world.
The Second Industrial Revolution (1871–1914)
The Digital Revolution- The sweeping changes brought about by computing and communication technology, starting from 1950 with the creation of the first general-purpose electronic computers. etc are the examples of non political revolutions.
The major Political Revolutions are Glorious Revolution,French Revolution, American Revolution,Russian Revolution,Cuban Revolution, Chinese Revolution.These revolutions leads to the fundamental change in power or organizational structures.

Reformation

Reformation is a revolution of a large sections of Christians broke away from the catholic church and formed a separate group of Christianity.It also known as protestant revolt rather than reformation. It also assumed a political character too.The popes besides claiming spiritual supremacy,often interfered in the internal affairs of the other countries in western Europe.Such interference clashed with the rising sentiment of national patriotism.the reformation was therefor not only a religious revolution but also a national revolt against the domination  of the foreign authority of the pope.There were several causes contributed to the reformation movement.Church corruption—such as the selling of indulgences, nepotism (the practice of appointing one’s relatives to offices),the pursuit of personal wealth by bishops, and the sexual indulgence of the clergy etc were the main reasons of the reformation. another prominent reason was the renaissance. Actually reformation was the child of renaissance.The critical spirit generated by the renaissance aroused a spirit of opposition among thinking men against the evils which had crept into the church.

At the end of the fourteenth century John Wycliffe an oxford professor,who has been called the morning star of reformation,severely criticized the temporal power of the church and immortality of the clergy.Erasmus and other humanist scholars of Germany, by their criticism against the evils of the church prepared the ground for the reception of the seeds of reformation. The German humanist were only reformers and not revolutionaries.they wanted to reform the church within the church and opposed the idea of separation from the catholic church.But the criticism which they opened, invited the deluge of the reformation.the advent of press helped to hi-lighten the feeling of anti clericalism and make the path clear to for the reformation. 

The growth of national consciousnesses Europe and the rise of despotic governments were another causes of reformation.The political ambitions of the despotic monarchs combined with the intense national spirit of the peoples dealt a severe blow to the secular and spiritual authority of the pope and created the proper climate for the reformation.The church had become a vast economic empire.it was the largest landowner in Europe.

The immediate cause of the reformation was the arrival of a Dominican monk Tetzel to Germany for the sale of indulgences.Martin Luther (1483– 1546), an obscure German monk and brilliant theologian started a rebellion against the church’s authority in Germany.

Humanism

Humanism, one of the most characteristic intellectual movement of the Renaissance.It was an educational and cultural program based on the study of ancient Greek and Roman literature.The humanist attitude toward antiquity differed from that of medieval scholars, who had taken pains to fit classical learning into a Christian world-view. Renaissance humanists did not subordinate the classics to the requirements of Christian doctrines. Rather, they valued ancient literature for its own sake, for its clear and graceful style and for its insights into human nature. For the humanists, the classics were a guide to the good life, the active life. To achieve self-cultivation, to write well, to speak well, and to live well, it was necessary to know the classics. Italian humanists used classical learning to nourish their new interest in a worldly life.  Renaissance humanists increase the circulation of every Roman work that could be found and that lead to  the study of Greek.They often treated moral problems in a purely secular manner. Yet in dealing with religious and theological issues, they did not challenge Christian belief or question the validity of the Bible.They stressed  on the direct study of the Bible and the writings of the church fathers. 

The humanists, however, stressed the importance of human actions and human will in history, the importance of people  as active participants in the shaping of events.The humanist emphasis on historical scholarship yielded a method of  critical inquiry that could help to undermine traditional loyalties and institutions.In contrast, Renaissance humanists approached ancient civilization with a critical attitude; they studied texts in a historical context and examined them for authenticity and accuracy.


Petrarch (1304–1374) one of the early humanists, called the father of humanism.

Erasmus(1466–1536) was another humanist who made Renaissance humanism an international movement.Erasmian humanism stressed toleration, kindness, and respect for human rationality. 

Francois Rabelais (1494–1553), a former monk,who spread the humanist spirit in France. In response to religious dogmatism, he asserted the essential goodness of the individual and the right to enjoy the world rather than being bound by the fear of a punishing God. 

Sir Thomas More (1478–1535)one of the most influential humanist of the early English Renaissance, was studied at Oxford. His impact came from both his writing and his career. Trained as a lawyer, he was a successful civil servant and member of Parliament. His most famous book is Utopia,the first major utopian treatise to be written in the West.Utopia consider as one of the most original works of the entire Renaissance